Value Alignment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Value Alignment - Essay Example For example, plagiarism is a short cult most of the students undertake in order to get good grades in their examinations. However these people will fail miserably in their real life when they face real life problems. Real life problems cannot be solved with the help of short cuts. It doesn’t mean that hard work alone may bring better results in life. According to modern life philosophies only those who work smarter may taste the success compared to those who work harder. For example, an accountant who is manually preparing the balance sheets may not be as good as an accountant who is computer software to prepare the balance sheets. In other words, the accountant who was smart enough to use the computers for solving a particular problem may do it faster than an accountant who is solving the same problem manually. Responsibility is the third element of success in life. Only responsible persons will take things seriously. Responsibility always attaches a person emotionally to a p articular thing. For example, a responsible father will always give more focus to the wellbeing of his family and the children. The success of his children will be taken as his own success and the failures of his children will be taken as his own failures. Responsibility will always motivate a person to work hard again and again till the success is attained.

Advantages Choose to Continue with Education in the Countries Essay Example for Free

Advantages Choose to Continue with Education in the Countries Essay Many student wish they can get goods education in their life. Not all students can get goods education especially for student low income families. So, universities in Malaysia have advantages can give goods education for students. The advantages choose to continue with education in the countries is cheap and affordable cost, the courses offered by Higher Education Institution is equivalent to the other countries and many Malaysia Higher Education Institution may be choose for learning. Firstly is the advantage of learning in our country is cheap and affordable costs are as low priority fees to local students. This is due to many students choose universities that offer low fees because they can not afford to fund the study. This is shown by Malaysia because Malaysia is not experiencing a seasonal climate and this will add value in terms of financial savings to students because they do not need different clothes according to the season at home in Malaysia. (Professor Badaruddin Mohamed, 2009). It also is in Malaysia, the government has allocated a total of RM232.8 billion for the implementation of all development and welfare of the people. (Prime Minister Dato Sri Mohd Najib Tun Abdul Razak, 2008). Then ,low – income families is the vast majority of low-income parents today are working but still struggling to make ends meet: struggling to find and keep a toehold in a changing labor market, to keep up with their bills, to pay the spiraling costs of essentials like health care and housing, and to raise children with a chance of future success. These families have much in common with other American families as they seek to balance work and family life, yet parents and children in low-income families are more financially vulnerable than those in higher-income families.( Annie E. Casey,2005). Secondly is the the other advantages in that the courses offered by Malaysia Higher Education Institution is equivalent to other countries are as there are more than 50000 international students pursuing tertiary courses ranging in Malaysia. This is many parts of the world attending international schools and pursuing tertiary courses ranging from diploma to degrees to PhD in private higher educational institutions and public universities in Malaysia.(Hamidon Zaini,2007) and Malaysia is acknowledged as one of the pioneers in this region in the development and promotion of transnational Bachelor’s degree programmes, starting way back in the early 1980s, collaborating with reputable universities from countries like the United Kingdom, USA, France, New Zealand, Germany, Australia, etc. (Hamidon Zaini,2007).Then is University in Malaysia collaborating with reputable university from another countries.Further,universities in Malaysia to work with reputable universities from other countries such as 1980s, university in Malaysia collaborating with university from United Kingdom, USA, France, New Zealand, Germany, Australia , etc.(Razali Awang,2008) and Malaysia private university established has many in other countries. Third is the last advantage of many Malaysian Higher Education Institutions can be selected for learning as studying in the country better than overseas. This is a study in local universities can save the cost compared to studying in universities abroad, students have to pay not only for our study but also for our living cost.(Salina,2011). This also is students who study abroad are exposed to culture shock and they will have communication barrier. In addition, you will miss your friends and family, feel homesick, at times lost or alienated.(Salina,2011). Then is local universities provide job opportunities such as if want to stay in higher education locally, draw a radius around your current institution and decide how far you can reasonably travel for another position.(Salina,2011). This is finding a job in higher education is part effort and part opportunity.(Salina,2011). In conclusion, we must take cognizance of the case studies appropriate to study whether abroad or studying locally. It is important for the learning process as a place that will change a soul either in choosing the place or abroad.

The Red Convertible by Louise Erdrich Essay -- Papers Vietnam War Red

The Red Convertible by Louise Erdrich In the Red Convertible by Louise Erdrich, the main character Henry loses his hold on reality. The story takes place in North Dakota on an Indian Reservation where Henry lives with his brother Lyman. Henry and Lyman buy a Red Convertible that later in the story illustrates Henry’s lack of ability to stay sane. The brothers take a summer trip across the United States in the car. When they return, Henry is called to join the army, which turns out to be the transitional point in Henry and Lyman’s personal life. The Vietnam War changed Henry’s appearance, psyche, and his feelings about the Red Convertible. Before the Vietnam War, Henry’s appearance was cheerful and energetic. Henry enjoyed the time he had with Lyman, working on the Red Convertible, and traveling across the U.S. during the summer. They went from Little Knife River to Alaska without a worry in the world. Henry was talkative and friendly to even strangers. For example, when they pass a woman on the side of the road Henry says, â€Å"Hop on in†, indicating his friendliness and confidence (975). Henry’s appearance before war suggests that his life was complete. However, after war, Henry’s appearance was one of depression and dishevelment. When Henry returned Lyman said â€Å"[he] was very different, and I’ll say this: the change was no good (977).† Henry was 180 different than he was before the war. â€Å"He was quiet, so quiet†¦,† said Lyman, not talkative and cheerful like he was before (977). Henry and Lyman had went on a long trip in the Red Convertible before the war, but now Henry is â€Å"never comfortable sitting still anywhere (977).† They used to sit around the whole afternoon before, but now Henry is always ... ...y’s feelings soon changed. Henry one day comes home and says, â€Å"the red car looks like *censored*†(978). This one point in the story where Henry’s past actions before war were still there after war, completely surprise Lyman. As the Red Convertible progresses Henry’s appearance, mental state, and feelings about his once cherished car change because of the Vietnam War. The war had extreme effects on Henry and his brother throughout the story. 57,000 men and women died in Vietnam, and the soldiers that survived suffered the same post-war feelings that Henry did. Seeing death causes every person to change in some way, but when it is as gruesome and seen as repeatedly as some soldiers did, it changed their lives forever. Work Cited Erdrich, Louise. "The Red Convertible." The Story and Its Writer. 5th ed. Ed. Ann Charters. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin's, 1999.

Celebrity Endorser Influence Essay

Celebrity Endorser Influence on Attitude Toward Advertisements and Brands Bahram Ranjbarian Associate Professor of management, Department of Management The University of Isfahan, Isfahan, Iran E-mail: Bahram1 r@yahoo.com Zahra Shekarchizade Master Student of Business Management, Department of Management University of Isfahan, Isfahan, Iran E-mail: Shekarchi_2020@yahoo.com Zahra Momeni Master Student of Business Management, Department of Management University of Isfahan, Isfahan, Iran E-mail: za.momeni@yahoo.com Abstract Purpose- This study aims to analyze the celebrity endorser influence on attitude toward advertisements and brands. Design/methodology/approach – A theoretical model is developed and tested with a sample of 193 students in University of Isfahan in 2009. Structural equation modeling was used with LISREL 8.50 and the maximum likelihood (ML) method. Findings – The findings show that attitude toward celebrity endorser can influence on attitude toward brand directly or indirectly. In indirectly approach, attitude toward advertisement is as a mediator between attitude toward celebrity endorser and attitude toward brand. On the other hand, attitude toward celebrity endorser has not significant effect on purchase intention. Originality/value – This paper provides a model connecting attitude toward celebrity endorser, attitude toward advertisement and attitude toward brand that has been examined and validated using a sample of students in University of Isfahan. Paper type- Research paper Keywords: Endorsement, Celebrities, Brand, Attitude, Advertisement Introduction Today one of the most prevalent forms of retail advertising is through using of celebrity endorsement (White et al, 2007). In fact celebrity endorsers are being used in about 25 percent of all television advertisements in order to promote brands (Erdogan et al, 2001).These endorsers are being paid by about 10 percent of advertiser’s budgets (Agrawal and Kamakura, 1995). Marketers invest huge amounts of money in contracts with celebrity endorsers each year, since they believe that celebrities affect the process of selling of their brands or products (Katyal, 2007). A celebrity endorser is a wellknown person (e.g., actors, sports figures and artists) because of his successes in a special field other than the endorsed product class (James, 2004). Celebrity endorsers are used by firms who want to 399 European Journal of Social Sciences – Volume 13, Number 3 (2010) support a product or service (Amos et al, 2008). Since presence of celebrity endorsers affects purchase decisions of consumers positively, producers and retailers have always preferred to use celebrity endorsements in order to sell their products (Stafford et al, 2003; Erdogan, 1999; Kamins, 1990). Kaikati (1987) believes that using of celebrities in advertisements could have many benefits and advantages including: 1) facilitating of brand identification 2) changing or impressing the negative attitude towards a brand 3) repositioning an existing brand 4) global marketing or positioning of a brand or product 5) affecting purchase intentions of consumers. Although using of celebrity endorsers as brand messengers is impressive, but it could have some risks. For instance, celebrities who are known to be guilty because of negative events (e.g., accident) may have harmful effects on the products that they endorse (Lou ie and Obermiller, 2002). Studies reveal that using of attractive celebrity causes to increase attitude towards advertisements. Such attitude towards advertisements is defined as â€Å"mental states which are used by individuals to organize the way they perceive their environment and control the way they respond to it† (Haghirian, 2004). There is a considerable correlation between desirable attitudes with regard to advertising and rating of certain advertisements by respondents as being likeable, irritating, delightful, etc (Bauer and Greyser, 1968). Celebrity endorsers enhance awareness of a company’s advertising, create positive feelings towards brands and are perceived by consumers as more amusing (Solomon, 2002). Thus using of a celebrity in advertising causes to influence brand attitude and purchase intentions of consumers in a positive way. Celebrity endorsement has a strong effect on consumers’ memory and learning approach too. Most consumers are not in a purchasing situation when they are encounter with message of the brand. Marketers use celebrity endorsement in order to help better storage of information in consumers’ minds which they can easily remember in purchasing situations (Schultz and Brens, 1995). However, there are many studies about celebrity endorser, but it seems that there are limited researches about the relationship between celebrity endorser and attitudes. The purpose of this study is to specify the impact of using celebrity endorsers in Iranian advertisements on attitudes of students in University of Isfahan toward those ads and brands. Literature Review Some properties such as likeability, expertise, trustworthiness and similarity cause a celebrity endorser to become a source of persuasive information and this creates a sense of certainty which has been revealed in many studies (Suranaa, 2008). Also physical attractiveness of the endorser is considerable in effectiveness of a message (Khatri, 2006). Acceptance of a message by a receiver could be influenced by celebrity endorsers as believable sources of information about a product or a firm (Amos et al, 2008). Using of celebrity endorsers to support products is explained by balance theory principles too. According to this theory, successful companies establish an emotional relation between the observer and endorser and a relation between endorser and brand too (Mowen, 2000). Before proceeding conceptual model, we describe the main constructs of this study. Celebrity Endorser McCracken (1998) has defined celebrity endorser as â€Å"any individual who enjoys public cognition and who uses this cognition on behalf of a consumer by appearing wit in an advertisement†. Moreover, celebrity is used as testimonial, endorsement, actor or spokesperson by the firm. Research has demonstrated that celebrity endorsement affects consumers’ feelings in general and it could affect the attitude of consumers towards the advertisement and brands too. This could result in enhancing of purchase intentions and as a result enhancing of sales. Some properties like credibility, physical attractiveness and likeability of celebrity endorser influence the ability of one person to impact other person (Amos et al, 2008). Source credibility is referred to identifying of communicator’s positive properties which influences acceptance of a message by the receiver (Ohanian, 1990). This consists of two main dimensions of expertise and 400 European Journal of Social Sciences – Volume 13, Number 3 (2010) trustworthiness. Source expertise refers to the degree which a communicator is perceived to be a source of valid assertion (Roozen, 2008). Source trustworthiness refers to faithfulness and reliability of the spokesperson (Khatri, 2006). Source attractiveness is the personality, likeability and similarity of endorsers to the receiver, thus to the perceived social values of the source (Solomon, 2002). Physical attractiveness of the source include being attractive, beautiful, elegant and charming. According to the studies in this ground, expertise dimension is more significant than physical attractiveness for matching of a brand with a suitable endorser (Brian and Michael, 1998). Likeability is referred to the positive or negative feelings that consumers have towards a source of information. We can define likeability as affection for the source because of its physical appearance and behavior (Erdogan, 1999). Though some research results reveal effectiveness of celebrities as endorsers (Freiden, 1984), but other researches suggest that celebrity endorsement may have different degrees of effectiveness depending on other factors like the â€Å"fit† between the celebrity and the advertised product (Till and Shimp, 1998). Celebrity Endorsers’ Effect on Aad and Ao Marketers are especially interested in consumers’ attitudes towards advertisements and brands. Essentially, attitudes are our predispositions with regard to things. An attitude shows whether we like something or not. Attitudes have three basic components: affective, cognitive and behavioral. Affective is related to our liking or feelings about an object. Cognitive is referred to beliefs about an object and behavioral component regards actions we take about that object (Severin and Tankard, 2001). Attitude towards advertisement is defined as â€Å"a learned tendency to respond in a consistently desirable or undes irable approach toward advertising in general† (Haghirian, 2004). On the other side, attitude towards the advertisement (Aad) is whether the consumer likes an advertisement (Ad) or hates it. Determinants of Aad consist of attitude towards the advertiser, assessment of the Ad execution itself, the mood evoked by Ad, and the extent to which the Ad affect viewer’s encouragement. Assessment of brands could be influenced by attitudes towards Ads. Of course what causes an advertisement to be impressive will change noticeably cross-culturally (Arnold et al, 2004). In performed studies, Aad is focused on as a mediator of advertiser’s effects on brand attitudes and purchase intentions (Suhere and Ispir, 2009). In recent studies, this issue has been proved that using of celebrity endorsement has a positive impact on attitudes of the consumer towards products and brands with which they are associated brand (Seno and Lukas, 2005). Agarwal and Malhotra (2005) have defined brand attitude as consumers’ general evaluative judgment of a brand based on brand beliefs. Such beliefs concern product-related attributes, like practical and experimental benefits. A successful endorser is able to enhance intentions and preferences towards brands directly or indirectly. An endorser who has major source factors of credibility (like expertise, trustworthiness and effectiveness) is able to impress purchase intentions of the consumer considerably (Liu et al, 2007). Information from a credible source can impress ideas, attitudes and behavior through a process called internalization (Belch and Belch, 1993). Internalization occurs when the receiver is motivated to have an issue. The receiver learns and accepts the idea of the credible spokesperson, since he supposes that information of this person represents an accurate position on the issue. Therefore, if such spokesperson who is known to be an expert endorses a product, consumers will more probably have a desirable idea about that advertisement and brand and they will consider it in their shopping list the next time they go shopping. Researchers have used the identification process of social influence in order to explain the effectiveness of celebrity endorsers (Basil, 1996). This theory suggests that if an individual identifies with another individual, then he is more likely to accept an attitude or behavior of that individual or a group. The internalization process of social influence is occurred â€Å"when an individual accepts influence because the induced behavior is congruent with his value system†. An individual accepts the influence, since it provides a solution to a problem (Daneshvary and Schwer, 2000). In the elaboration likelihood model (ELM), individual’s level of motivation to process central message arguments is represented which is one of its key factors that affects the relative impact of 401 European Journal of Social Sciences – Volume 13, Number 3 (2010) central and peripheral processing (Petty and Cacioppo, 1986). When applied to an adverting context, ELM suggests that consumers’ motivation to centrally process brand-relevant aspects of an advertisement is enhanced, the impact of central processing on brand attitudes should be enhanced, the effect of peripheral processing on brand attitudes should be reduced and the effect of brand attitudes on purchase intentions should be enhanced (Lafferty and Goldsmith, 1999). In this theoretical model, the endorser serves as cue just during peripheral processing. Therefore, the effect of the endorser should be reduced while central processing is enhanced. Mackenzie and Lutz (1989) have stated that advertiser credibility is a central processing cue more than any other thing. Credibility of the source is considered important in influence acceptance. A consumer will accept the accurate influence (information) and apply it if there the source is perceived to be credible. It is accepted because it is â€Å"demand† by ones own values. Therefore, a product’s endorsement by a credible source may impress purchase behavior (Danwshvary and Schwer, 2000). As a result, celebrity endorsement can increase the process of recalling and consume assessment of products (Khatri, 2006). On the other hand, celebrity endorsement has a severe effect on learning approach and memory. Researchers in the field of marketing and social psychology have studied the manner of impressing of purchase decision by celebrity endorsements. Various hypotheses have been proposed including having recall of the product by celebrity endorsement, celebrities have credibility on expertise that makes the product more desirable or increases perceptions of quality; the celebrity endorsers’ image is transferred to the product so that those who use the product are associated with the image. Experiments suggest that celebrity endorsement can increase recall and consume assessment of the products in certain situations (Clark and Horstman, 2003). Most of the times, making connection with the brand message is occurred when consumers are not in a purchasing situation. Marketers use celebrity endorsement so that information will be kept in consumers’ minds better and in the case of purchasing situation, they can easily retrieve it (Surana, 2008). A successful endorser strategy can enhance the level of consumers’ recalling towards product information, reinforces consumers’ recognition to endorsed brands, positively influences consumers’ attitude to low-involved products and even enhance consumers’ purchase intention and preference towards brands (Liu et al, 2007) Therefore, hypothesizes of the study are as follows. H1: Attitude toward ad is positively affected by attitude toward celebrity endorser. H2: Attitude toward brand is positively affected by attitude toward celebrity endorser H3: Attitude toward brand is positively affected by attitude toward advertisement. H4: Intention to buy is positively affected by attitude toward celebrity endorser Method Data Collection Information was obtained from randomly selected students from University of Isfahan through survey questionnaires during September- November 2009. University of Isfahan is one of the major universities in the fields of science, human science and engineering. A total sample of 193 participants was obtained. The sample was composed of 137 women (71 percent) and 56 men (21 percent). A cluster sampling procedure with age and degree as main control variables was applied. The age of the respondents ranged from 19 to 30 years, with a mean of 24. All questionnaires were self-administered by the participants without interference from researchers. Measures The study uses multi-item scales to measure the constructs in our model. All items in the questionnaire were measured on a five-point Likert-type scale anchored from â€Å"strongly disagree† (1) to â€Å"strongly agree† (5). Some of the measures were available in the literature, though most were adapted to suit this European Journal of Social Sciences – Volume 13, Number 3 (2010) particular context. To measure attitude toward celebrity endorser we used ten items. Attitude toward advertisement and attitude toward brand were measured with six items and five items, respectively. In order to measure reliability of questions in the questionnaire, 30 questionnaires have been pre-tested through pilot studies. Then, amount of confidence coefficient has been calculated by method of Cronbach’s alpha for which 0.83 % is obtained. This number shows that the applied questionnaire enjoys confidentiality or in other words the necessary reliability. Results Measurement Model Measurement model Structural equation modeling with LISREL 8.54 and the maximum likelihood (ML) method was used to analyse the data.. LISREL is a structural equations modeling technique that traces structural relations in a set of data (Eriksson et al, 2004). Structural equation modelling was used because it allows to estimate multiple and interrelated dependence relationships and unobserved factors can be represented in these relationships. Additionally, measurement error in the estimation process is accounted for (Hair et al., 1998). The model is assessed with the comparative fit index (CFI), standardised root meanresidual (SRMR), root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA), and Akaike’s (1987) information criterion (AIC). The measurement model provided a good fit to the data: (CFI = 0:98, SRMR=0.058, RMSEA = 0.015 and AIC =396.22). All values of CFI, SRMR, and RMSEA meet the standards suggested by Hu and Bentler (1999): 0.95 for CFI, 0.08 for SRMR, and 0.06 for RMSEA.There are no Guidelines for the AIC but lower values indicate better fit. The fit of the structural model is good and is reported in Table I. In the following we will test our hypotheses and consequently report the standardised path coefficients. As shown in Table I, three of hypotheses are empirically supported and one of them is not confirmed. The effect of attitude toward celebrity endorser on attitude toward advertisement is significant (standardised path coefficient = 0:49). This shows that the higher the attitude toward endorser, the more the attitude toward advertisement. Attitude toward celebrity endorser also have significant effect on attitude toward brand (standardised path coefficient= 0.24), but this effect is comparatively weaker than its effect on attitude toward advertisement. On the other hand, the effect of attitude toward advertisement on attitude toward brand is significant (standardised path coefficient = 0:56). This clearly shows that attitude toward advertisement has the highest standardized path coefficient and therefore has the strongest influence on attitude toward brand. The results show that the effects of attitude celebrity endorser on Purchase intention is not significant (standardised path coefficient = 0.11). This means that attitud toward celebrities, does not necessarily always translates into purchase intentions. Discussion The purpose of this study is to examine the relationship among attitude toward celebrity endorser and attitude toward advertisement and brand. Effects of a celebrity endorser on respondents’ assessments about advertisements and products endorsed by celebrities have been studied previously. There are some interesting findings for using of celebrity endorsers in Iranian advertisements. Attitude towards a celebrity endorser has a direct positive effect on attitude towards advertisement. Attitude towards advertisement has important effects on attitude towards brands, too and its effect is comparatively stronger than the effect of celebrity endorser. But the effect of attitude toward celebrity endorser on purchase intention is not considerable. Results of this study demonstrate that attitude towards celebrity endorser has an indirect effect on attitude towards brand. This result confirms outcomes of the previous research by Agarwal and Kamakura (1995), Till and Busler (1998), and W hite et al (2008). When there is a â€Å"fit† between the   European Journal of Social Sciences – Volume 13, Number 3 (2010) endorser and the endorsed product, endorser’s image helps construct the image of the brand in consumers’ minds. In fact, using of an attractive endorser has a positive impact on consumer attitudes towards a brand, because attractive endorsers have a tendency to get more attention than less attractive ones. On the other hand, experience of celebrity’s negative information can have an undesirable effect on the endorsed product. Transfer of negative information between the celebrity endorser and the endorsed product could be facilitated through cognitive relational pathway. We have considered social position of artists because people have more positive attitude towards artists. So, they distribute attitude towards artists to attitude towards endorsed brand. The association between attitude towards celebrity endorser and attitude towards advertisement has been shown in numerous studies, as the relationship between sports celebrity endorsements and retail products’ adverting are reported (White et al, 2008) and sports celebrity endorsements are being used in advertisements to impress brand selection. It is recognized in one study that attitude towards advertisement is considered as an interagent that influences attitude towards brand (Suhere and Ispir, 2009). Results of our study reveal that attitude towards advertisement is as an interagent between attitude towards celebrity and attitude towards brand. In our opinion, Iranians are interested in artists and know them as credible sources. So, ads makers use artists as celebrity to impress viewers’ attitudes towards advertisement and thereupon attitude towards brand. According to previous studies about the effect of the celebrity endorser on purchase intentions, such as Kamins (1990), Ohanian (1991), Liu et al (2007), we expected that positive attitude towards celebrities impressed purchase intentions. But results of this study confirm research outcomes of O’Mahony and Meenaghan (1997). According to this study, attitude towards celebrities does not necessarily always interpret in to purchase intentions. It seems that Iranian’s consumer tendency for buying is influenced by other various items such as age, gender, income and education too. Limitation This study has some limitations. The primary limitation of the present research relates to generalizability. The sample was restricted to students in University of Isfahan and this limits our results to be generalized, too. Another relevant consideration is that numerous girl students in university of Isfahan are more than its boy students. Also, this study relied exclusively on questionnaires to assess influence attitude toward celebrity endorser on attitude toward advertisements and brands, whereas this relationships need to be more investigated. On the other hand, this paper could not estimate effect of attitude toward celebrity endorser on purchase intention. In addition, our results are relational and not causal; therefore, it can not be concluded from this study whether attitude toward advertisement and brand is only cause or result of attitude toward celebrity endorser. Conclusion In this study the goal was to indicate the influence of using celebrity endorsers in Iranian advertisements on attitudes of students in University of Isfahan toward those advertisements and brands. The result of this study showed that the positive and significant relationship between attitude toward celebrity endorser and attitude toward advertisements and brands. By analyzing the output resulting from testing hypotheses, it can be concluded that attitude toward celebrity endorser has directly or indirectly influence on attitude toward brand. Consequences suggested that attitude toward advertisement was as a mediator between attitude toward celebrity endorser and attitude toward brand. On the other hand, attitude toward celebrity endorser hadn’t significant influence on purchase intention. So, future researches should put more effort into making strong believable explanations for how celebrity endorsers are able to have significant influence on consumer intention for purchase. References [1] [2] Agrawal, J. and Kamakura, W.A. (1995), â€Å"The economic worth of celebrity endorsers: an event study analysis†, Journal of Marketing, Vol. 59 No. 3, pp. 56-62 Agarwal, J. and Malhotra, N.K. (2005), â€Å"An integrated model of attitude and affect: theoretical foundation and an empirical investigation†, Journal of usiness Research, Vol. 58 No. 4, pp. 483-93. Arnoulds, E., Price, L. and Zinkhan, G. (2004). â€Å"Consumers†. Boston: Mc Graw-Hill. Basil, M.D. (1996), â€Å"Identification as a mediator of celebrity effects†, Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, Vol. 40, fall, pp. 478-95. Bauer, R. A. and Greyser, S. A. (1968). â€Å"Advertising in America: The Consumer View†. Boston: Harvard University. Belch, G.E., and Belch, M.A. (1993), â€Å"Introduction to Advertising and Promotion: An Integrated Marketing Communications Perspective†, Irwin, Homewood, IL. Clark, R.C. and Horstman, I.J. (2003), â€Å"Celebrity Endorsents† (www.bu.edu/ e.con/seminar/micro/pdffav) celebendorse.bu.pdf. Clinton, A., Gary, H. and David, S. (2008), â€Å"Exploring the relationship between celebrity endorser effects and advertising effectiveness, a quantitative synthesis of effect size†, International Journal of Advertising, Vol.27 No.2, pp. 209–234. Daneshvary, R. and Schwer R.K. (2000), â€Å"The association endorsement and consumers intention to purchase†, Journal of Consumer Marketing, Vol. 17 No. 3 2000, pp. 203-213. Erdogan, B.Z. (1999), â€Å"Celebrity endorsement: a literature review†, Journal of Marketing Management, 15(3), pp. 291–314. Erdogan, B.Z., Baker, M.J. and Tagg, S. (2001), â€Å"Selecting celebrity endorsers: the practitioner’s perspective†, Journal of Advertising Research, Vol. 41 No. 3, pp. 39-48. Eriksson,K., Kerem,K. and Nilsson,D. (2005), â€Å"Customer acceptance of internet banking in Estonia†, International Journal of Bank Marketing,Vol.2 3 No. 2, pp. 200-216. Freiden, J.B. 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Kamins, M.A. (1990), â€Å"An investigation into the ‘match-up’ hypothesis in celebrity advertising: when beauty may be only skin deep†, Journal of Advertising, Vol. 19 No. 1, pp. 413. Lear,K.E, Runyan,R.C. and Whitaker,W.H. (2009), â€Å"Sports celebrity endorsements in retail produc ts advertising†, International Journal of Retail &Distribution Management, Vol. 37 No. 4, pp. 308-321. Katyal, S. (2008), â€Å"Impact of Celebrity Endorsement on a Brand†, Chillibreeze writer, available at www.chillibreeze.com/articles/ accessed on 12th, July. Khatri, P. (2006), â€Å"Celebrity Endorsement: A Strategic Promotion Perspective†, Indian Media Studies Journal Vol.1 No.1. July-Dec. 405

Reaction Paper on SONA 2014 Essay

There were many highlights on the recent SONA President Benigno S. Aquino stated last July 28, 2014 and these are the 3 things that intrigued me the most: Under the controversial DAP, PNoy said that around P1.6 billion fund was given to Training-for-Work Scholarship Program of TESDA. A total of 223,615 beneficiaries have graduated with an equivalent of 146,731 graduates currently working. I would say I really applauded him for his insights on education. True, Education is very important in every country. A country consists of people, now if those people are mostly illiterate what do you think would the country become of? And yes, after spending a couple of pesos to those students through scholarships, how much do you think those students would pay for their taxes when the will graduate and have their own jobs? see more:sona 2017 reaction paper The ugly side of this though is the reaction of COA and politics involvement. Did you know that according to COA these amounts were not fully utilized by the agency, casting doubt on Aquino’s figures. COA said that out of the P1.1 billion funds from DAP obtained by TESDA in 2011 for TWSP, only 92.47% was utilized. Now how about that?! People and even projects are not perfect. When will they accept that?! I am still thankful though because at least he is showing positive numbers and facts. President Benigno S. Aquino III, during his 5th State of the Nation Address (SONA) on Monday, cited attainments in the country’s aviation industry as having contributed to the country’s steady economic growth the past year. First on the list of citations was when the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) last March 2013 lifted the significant safety concerns it had previously issued for the Philippines.In the same year, the European Union lifted its ban on Philippine Airlines, allowing it to fly once again to Europe. But with the improved aviation system, President Aquino said, Filipinos can now fly directly from Manila to London. President Aquino also welcomed the FAA’s decision to upgrade the Philippines’ aviation status back to Category 1. He said that because of this upgrade, it is likely that there  will also be an increase in routes going to the United States â€Å"The increase in flights of our local airlines to the United States and participating countries in the EU is a big help to both tourism and business,† the President said in his speech. I am also thankful for this one. Philippines being an accessible country worldwide is a Go Go ! what I meant is its a definite plus for us if we don’t spend too much on connecting flights just for us to get to our destination. I not sure if ever you experienced connecting flights before and I really hope youd never do . Because, Oh my! it is such a hassle with time and money. Imagine you being excited but you need stopovers, sleeping in the airport just catch the earliest flight to your destination and pray to GOD the weather will cooperate or else you’re stuck! Meanwhile, President Aquino also pointed out how the country’s hosting of the World Economic Forum on East Asia this year was a huge success, showing the world the country’s capacity in business.â€Å"†¦With the APEC (Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation) Summit the Philippines will be hosting next year, we will be able to inform even more people of our progress, and the opportunities that this has opened up for all,† he said. This is my biggest concern of them all. I hope he will exert more effort on this one. As a regular consumer I don’t see myself having a positive sides on this one. Yes I know we are eventually experiencing Mother Nature’s reminders on how we should take care of the resources she has given. But by God! even the spices that is very common and needed in every household (ex: GARLIC – my favourite spice with chicken) costs too much. Including our staple food which is rice. This one needs to be alleviated! Remember County c onsists of People, People needs Education but most of all it needs to FOOD in order to survive!

Laissez-Faire Essays - Classical Liberalism, Economic Liberalism

Laissez-Faire Essays - Classical Liberalism, Economic Liberalism Laissez-Faire Explaining a Concept: Concept of the Invisible Hand in a Laissez-faire economy By preferring the support of domestic to that of foreign industry, he intends only his own security; and by directing that industry in such a manner as its produce may be of the greatest value, he intends only his own gain, and he is in this, as in many other cases, led by an invisible hand to promote an end which was no part of it. Adam Smith, Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations 1776. What business does a government have in commerce and trade? Why would a government want to interfere between two countries benefiting from each other by trade? What right does the government have in two individuals wanting each others products or services? According to some, commerce and trade should be permitted to operate free of controls of any kind; there should be no tariffs or other barriers. This is where the term laissez-faire is introduced. Its direct translation in French, leave alone to do, is self-explanatory. A strong believer in this type of economics is Adam Smith, both a philosopher and an economist. Born on 1723 in Kirkcaldy, Fife, he studied at Oxford, and became a professor of logic at Glasgow (1751), but took up the chair of moral philosophy the following year. In 1776, he moved to London, where he published An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (1776), the first major work of political economy. This examined in detail the consequences of economic freedom, such as division of labor, the function of markets, and the international implications of a laissez-faire economy. Adam Smith is most remembered today for his explanation of our market system. A majority of people saw confusion when they observed economic activity in England during the middle of the 18th century. They saw everyone doing whatever they pleased and deemed necessary. Businesses produced whatever they wanted to make. Consumers purchased whatever they wanted to buy. No one told anyone what had to be bought and what had to be sold especially the government. And yet, somehow, businesses seemed to be providing the goods and services that consumers wanted and needed. Some might have called it luck; Adam Smith called it an invisible hand. And today, it is considered the laissez-faire economy. The invisible hand is a term for the unseen process of co-ordination which ensures consistency of individual plans in a decentralized market economy (Pearce, 220). Adam Smith introduced this phrase in his book, An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (Book IV, Chap. II), who stressed the role that the invisible hand played in attaining a harmony of interests. Imagine this invisible hand suspended above everyone. This invisible hand encourages businesspeople to pursue profits and it pushes consumers to buy goods and services. And at the same time, that invisible hand discourages government from directing the economic activity. This invisible hand that Adam Smith refers to as a guiding force was the people and their attitudes. It all started with profit-seeking individuals. Using self-interest to feed their drive, people started businesses. When a business would become successful, others would notice and enter into the same field. As a direct result, growing consumer demand was satisfied while competition controlled rising prices. As demand grew, businesses were established in which workers shared tasks. This is called division of labor, in which one worker handled the first stage, another the second, and a third finished the product. The result was mass production, more efficiency, and lower costs. Mass production meant that people no longer had to grow there own food and remain on the farm; there would be enough to supply a large workforce. Paying all those laborers resulted in an army of consumers with money to spend. Adam Smith argued that an individual acting purely out of self-interest, would be a progressive force for the maximization of the total wealth of a nation. The role of the government should be permissive, creating a legal defensive setup sufficient to allow individual action. Interference with the free working of this natural order will reduce the growth of wealth and misdirect

Social Networking Profile Quotations

Social Networking Profile Quotations On social networking sites, make a profile that leaves a lasting impression. If your profile is drab, nobody will be interested in you. But with a super-cool profile, you can draw all the attention. Use these cool profile quotes to carve a unique identity for yourself. Cool profile quotes add zing to your emails too. Quotes for Social Media Profiles Stupidity: Bertrand RussellThe trouble with the world is that the stupid are cocksure and the intelligent are full of doubt.God: Benjamin FranklinFear God, and your enemies will fear you.Time: Benjamin FranklinEmploy thy time well, if thou meanest to get leisure.Stupidity: Elbert HubbardGenius may have its limitations, but stupidity is not thus handicapped.Love: Benjamin FranklinIf you would be loved, love and be lovable.Laughter: Irish ProverbA good laugh and a long sleep are the best cures in the doctors book.Work: Edgar BergenHard work never killed anybody, but why take a chance?Stupidity: Bill CosbyA word to the wise aint necessary its the stupid ones that need the advice.Life: Oscar WildeWe are all in the gutter, but some of us are looking at the stars.Life: JRR TolkienAll who wander are not lost.Prejudice: William JamesA great many people think they are thinking when they are merely rearranging their prejudices.Supernatural: Elbert HubbardThe supernatural is the natural not ye t understood. Humor: Mark TwainThere are three kinds of lies: lies, damned lies, and statistics.Opportunity: Ralph Waldo EmersonEvery wall is a door.

5 Effective Cover Letter Techniques thatll Get You the Job

5 Effective Cover Letter Techniques thatll Get You the Job Like so much conventional wisdom on how to find a job, apply for it, and get an offer, the cover letter is getting a fresh layer of scrutiny these days. Sure, we write them because that’s just how it’s done†¦but how helpful are they these days, really? And are there better ways to make them more than just the skimmed-over wrapper on the real meat of your resume? The answers to those questions, respectively, are â€Å"not very† and â€Å"you betcha.† Cover letters are holdovers from the time when we actually wrote out an introduction to ourselves, typed or printed it out onto expensive (but tasteful) paper, and popped it into the mail, hoping it would land on the right desk. Eventually, it became the email holding the attached PDF or doc containing the resume itself.Now, the cover letter is either sucked into an online job application engine and parsed for keywords, or likely browsed quickly while someone clicks through to the attachment. These changes in â€Å"how they read† mean there also need to be changes in â€Å"how we write.†Here are some cover letter techniques and strategies for disrupting the traditional cover letter, and making yours a relevant piece of the application package again- even in a short-attention-span world.1. Consider your audience.Are you writing this for a robot (automated application system) or a human (actual email address)? If it’s the former, shoot for lots of keywords related to the job description. If it’s the latter, try to engage the person on the other end.2. Open with a memorable line.If you’re a recruiter or hiring manager, your attention glazes over after today’s 50th â€Å"I have an extensive background in software development for cats, and I know I’ll be a good fit for your company.† Instead, try for a bit of trivia. (â€Å"Did you know that the first cat video game was originally developed as a dog video game?†) Or make a gen tle joke (â€Å"My cat would never forgive me if I didn’t bring my background and skills to work for his favorite tech company.†) This is a chance to insert a little of your personality, given that your resume is a more brass-tacks assessment of your history and accomplishments.But if you go this route, always, always, always make sure that the tone is light and mild. Never make an off-color joke or reference, and don’t take the reader’s sense of humor for granted. When it doubt, take it out.3. Tell a story.Again, this is your chance to inject some of yourself into this rather clinical process. You may plan on saving up all the anecdotes for your interview, but there’s no guarantee that you’ll even get to that stage. Here’s your chance to offer a bit of personal trivia or insight that makes you well-suited to the job. If your blue-ribbon-winning science project in high school started you on your path to this career and company, say so . Keep it brief, though- just one or two sentences. You want the reader to get a quick sense of who you are, on top of the resume data points.4. Assume the reader only has a minute or two to review.Keep it brief- just a few paragraphs with the high-level points: an introduction, your main qualifications for the job, and a closing/call to action. Make sure you zero in on what you bring to the job up front, and what you could provide on a long-term basis.5. Format it for a small screen.Ideally, the reader would be savoring your cover letter at his or her desk, a cup of tea in hand. In reality, he or she is likely reading on the way to somewhere else, or multitasking on a phone or tablet over lunch. Lay out your cover letter with this in mind:short paragraphs, with bullet points whenever possibleplenty of white space for ease of readingno fancy fonts or bells and whistlesTaking extra care with your cover letter can help make sure it’s not just skimmed and dismissed. It may be an evolving piece of the application process, but it’s one that can mean the difference between landing in the â€Å"meh† pile and the â€Å"tell me more† pile.

The Declaration of Independence Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

The Declaration of Independence - Essay Example A wÐ µll-Ð µducatÐ µd, powÐ µrful advocatÐ µ of frÐ µÃ µdom and libÐ µrty, Thomas JÐ µffÐ µrson was an articulatÐ µ architÐ µct of thÐ µ AmÐ µrican govÐ µrnmÐ µnt as wÐ µ know it, or would likÐ µ to; that is, a govÐ µrnmÐ µnt which is thÐ µ sÐ µrvant of thÐ µ pÐ µoplÐ µ it rÐ µprÐ µsÐ µnts, not thÐ µir mastÐ µr. a govÐ µrnmÐ µnt which is an ongoing continuation of thÐ µ AmÐ µrican rÐ µvolution’s frÐ µÃ µ spirit. WhÐ µn JÐ µffÐ µrson wrotÐ µ thÐ µ DÐ µclaration of IndÐ µpÐ µndÐ µncÐ µ, hÐ µ usÐ µd many rhÐ µtorical stratÐ µgiÐ µs of thÐ µ AgÐ µ of RÐ µason to assÐ µrt collÐ µctivÐ µ unity and frÐ µÃ µdom. ThÐ µ DÐ µclaration of IndÐ µpÐ µndÐ µncÐ µ is basically a documÐ µnt that condÐ µmns thÐ µ British Crown and holds that its formÐ µr coloniÐ µs in North AmÐ µrica arÐ µ now unitÐ µd as statÐ µs. ThÐ µ most vital important statÐ µmÐ µnt that was madÐ µ about frÐ µÃ µdom in this documÐ µnt, thÐ µ DÐ µclaration of IndÐ µpÐ µndÐ µncÐ µ, howÐ µvÐ µr, was that thÐ µ U.S. country as a nation was frÐ µÃ µ and indÐ µpÐ µndÐ µnt of British colonial control. In thÐ µ dÐ µclaration, thÐ µ committÐ µÃ µ mÐ µmbÐ µrs and JÐ µffÐ µrson sÐ µt forth a list of what thÐ µ British colonialists had donÐ µ to thÐ µ AmÐ µricans to curtail thÐ µir frÐ µÃ µdoms, and statÐ µd that thÐ µy arÐ µ not obligatÐ µd to Ð µxist undÐ µr a systÐ µm that has such curtailmÐ µnts as its important factors. ThÐ µrÐ µforÐ µ, thÐ µ documÐ µnt was important bÐ µcausÐ µ thÐ µ authors, â€Å"by authority of thÐ µ good pÐ µoplÐ µ of thÐ µsÐ µ ColoniÐ µs, solÐ µmnly publish and dÐ µclarÐ µ, That thÐ µsÐ µ UnitÐ µd ColoniÐ µs arÐ µ, and of right ought to bÐ µÃ µ frÐ µÃ µ and indÐ µpÐ µndÐ µnt StatÐ µs† (KlÐ µinman Ð µt al., 1998). ... ThÐ µrÐ µforÐ µ, thÐ µ documÐ µnt was important bÐ µcausÐ µ thÐ µ authors, â€Å"by authority of thÐ µ good pÐ µoplÐ µ of thÐ µsÐ µ ColoniÐ µs, solÐ µmnly publish and dÐ µclarÐ µ, That thÐ µsÐ µ UnitÐ µd ColoniÐ µs arÐ µ, and of right ought to bÐ µÃ µ frÐ µÃ µ and indÐ µpÐ µndÐ µnt StatÐ µs† (KlÐ µinman Ð µt al., 1998). ThÐ µ DÐ µclaration of IndÐ µpÐ µndÐ µncÐ µ was Ð µffÐ µctivÐ µ ovÐ µrall bÐ µcausÐ µ its primary author, JÐ µffÐ µrson, rÐ µflÐ µctÐ µd a sort of idÐ µalism that showÐ µd in thÐ µ documÐ µnt from his ЕnlightÐ µnmÐ µnt idÐ µals. ThÐ µ fivÐ µ critÐ µria that will bÐ µ judgÐ µd by this rÐ µport in rÐ µlation to thÐ µ DÐ µclaration’s ЕnlightÐ µnmÐ µnt rhÐ µtoric arÐ µ its status as a humanist documÐ µnt, its absolutist rhÐ µtoric, its utopian rhÐ µtorical statÐ µmÐ µnts about thÐ µ naturÐ µ of rÐ µpublic and dÐ µmocracy, and its strong rhÐ µtoric on thÐ µ limitations of absolutÐ µ powÐ µr in monarchical govÐ µrnmÐ µnt. HowÐ µvÐ µr, thÐ µ documÐ µnt doÐ µs not work on all lÐ µvÐ µls, whÐ µn onÐ µ considÐ µrs thÐ µ provisions about thÐ µ Ð µquality of crÐ µation in thÐ µ contÐ µxt of a slavÐ µ-owning nation. ThÐ µ first stratÐ µgy considÐ µrÐ µd is that of thÐ µ DÐ µclaration’s status as a humanist documÐ µnt. JÐ µffÐ µrson and thÐ µ othÐ µr draftÐ µrs usÐ µ humanist rhÐ µtoric, calling attÐ µntion to thÐ µ basic human nÐ µÃ µd of frÐ µÃ µdom. During thÐ µ timÐ µ that thÐ µ documÐ µnt was writtÐ µn, ЕuropÐ µ was bÐ µing swÐ µpt by a nÐ µw sÐ µntimÐ µnt. PÐ µoplÐ µ wÐ µrÐ µ starting to quÐ µstion thÐ µ old systÐ µms of control and thÐ µ divinÐ µ powÐ µr of thÐ µ monarch was waning. ThÐ µrÐ µ was a nÐ µw trÐ µnd of looking to human ingÐ µnuity and gÐ µnius for answÐ µrs, rathÐ µr than simply looking to rÐ µligion, during this timÐ µ. This was known as humanism. In

Project guide Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Project guide - Essay Example calculating your costs; estimating the benefits to customers and the limits on how much they’re willing to pay; and comparing your products, services, and prices to others that are similar i.e. with the competitors. Maximum current profit- here marketer estimate the demand and costs associated with alternative prices and choose the price that produces maximum current profit, cash flow, or return on investment (ROI). Product/service quality leadership- providing high quality services at higher price specially targets premium customers. Here marketer believes in perfection with no compromise and thus offers his service at higher price. A price is being established on the basis of owner’s own choice by following any of the above major objectives and also by the willingness of the consumers on how much they can pay, what are the substitutes available to them, is your competitor offering the same or better service that too on a lower cost than your service, you have to evaluate and then set the price of the product. The price could be a low one so that you could attract and have access to a larger audience. Or you could approach it from the opposite end – charge a high premium so that each service would generate a lot of revenue and you would not have to work the long hours nor have more over-head. For e.g. one of my friends is running a restaurant named as ‘The Diners Park’ and has invested a major chunk of his capital for this venture. So earlier, with the fixed costs, it was getting really hard for him to generate substantial profit. The customers very often like the quality of food and ambience of his restaurant but it was the price of the food items which was the main concern of his customers and of his as well. He earlier took product/service-quality leader as an objective and thus set the prices higher than his competitors but provided a high –class premium quality food and services. But after analyzing the whole case he found that though

American Workforce Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

American Workforce - Essay Example The workers are witnessing a steady rise in various new segments such as health, computers, information technology and numerous other public sectors. The service sector itself saw a substantial rise in the number of labors in transportation, services, wholesale and retail trade, utilities, finance, real estate, insurance and even in the government jobs. Now let us look closely at the changing percentage of gender, age, race and disability the face of the changing job market. Role of Gender Men are historically known to contribute the largest part of employee ratio, with white men leading the show. However this statistics is witnessing an amazing transformation as more and more ladies step out of their homes to earn a living. Women play a very significant role in the contribution of the total labor force as they account for 46.8 percent of labor as of 2009. America gives employment to 66 Million women of which 74 percent worked on a full time basis while the remaining 26 percent compr ised of part time workers.

Why The Lahad Datu Crisis In Sabah (Malaysia) Happened Research Paper

Why The Lahad Datu Crisis In Sabah (Malaysia) Happened - Research Paper Example Sabah has been a quota of the Malaysian alliance ever since the early1960s1. However, the Sulu Sultanate, which is situated in southern Philippines, has persistently asserted its historical and exclusive privileges over the zone. Furthermore, the Philippines have nevertheless to publicly descent its assertion that Sabah is a portion of its region. The government of Malaysia had requested the armed Filipinos in Lahad Datu to admit defeat for three weeks now without a success. Unfortunately, on March 5th, the army confronted the group and terminated the livelihood. The clash and subsequent military operations reportedly resulted into the killing of more than fifty people, inclusive of eight associates of the Malaysian police. The Malaysian ministry of welfare was fast to name the armed Filipinos as bombers. The government of the Philippines, which is presently accomplishing a peace treaty with Muslim separaties in the southern portion of the nation, also condemned the livelihood. Remar kably, the prime minister of Malaysia has yet to let go the notion that Malaysian opposition politicians have collaborated with the Sulu sultan in order to undermine the nation and bring down the presiding alliance ahead of the year`s universal polls. This research aims at analyzing the reasons why Lahad Datu crisis in Sabah (Malaysia )happened.... Thus, because of such restriction, the Lahad Datu crisis in Sabah was inevitable. This is because such limitations on travel will likely cause shortages on foodstuffs for the people, which is a dangerous action for people in such area. However, it is feared that the Sabah crisis is most likely to leave problems for both Malaysia and the Philippines for the coming future. Therefore, in order to avoid such crisis from happening, it is necessary that the officials of Malaysia and the Philippines settle for the last time the issue of Sabah. From research, the Philippines preserves a central regional entitlement to eastern Sabah, initially referred to as north Bomeo, through the custom of the Sultanate of Sulu. This claim is based on the idea that the domain of the sultanate has traditionally traversed from the Sulu archipelago into portions of northern Bomeo4. Therefore, because of such claims, the embassy of Malaysia in Philippines gives out a cheque of some amount to the lawful counsel of the beneficiaries of the Sultan of Sulu in maintain the terms of an pact made in 1878. Malaysia views the amount as a yearly cession payment for the disputed nation; however, the progeny of Sultan views it as a lease imbursement. Nevertheless, Malaysia has categorically canceled any Philippine local entitlement to Sabah as it infers the 1878 pact as that of cession and that it supposes that the inhabitants of Sabah had practiced their rights to independence when they decided to join the Malaysia confederation in 1963. Thus, analytically, it is because of such issues that led to the Lahad Datu crisis in Sabah. In addition, another reason for the Lahad Datu

MANAGING CHANGE AND CREATIVITY IN ORGANIZATIONS Assignment

MANAGING CHANGE AND CREATIVITY IN ORGANIZATIONS - Assignment Example Human resource management plays a critical role in defining business performance and productivity. It has a direct impact on the organizational success and market positioning within a highly competitive environment. People are the key assets instrumental in stimulating business growth and development. Human resource management has assumed increased significance in devising corporate strategies and enhancing organizational efficiency. The present economic environment has exposed the organizations to a number of challenges that includes structuring business processes to adapt to rapidly changing market dynamics and operating environment. Successful organizations are founded on principles of creativity and innovation within the work environment that provides the companies with the competitive edge to win strategic battles for market share and positioning. Organizations in today’s world operate in a dynamic environment that is driven by the globalization of economies, increased technology innovations and consumer demands. The changing demographics of the markets are responsible for large scale adaptations in product design, delivery and business processes. Most organizations today face the challenge of leading change management process. It is widely accepted that competent change management can help businesses transform their operational procedures, outlook and approach towards more effective and efficient means of delivering goods and services. A company in order to harness its strengths and core competencies to gain competitive edge must be able to identify them. One of the primary challenges facing the recruiter is to identify the key skills and competencies required by the organization to execute its tasks and objectives. A vital aspect of core competency development within organizations relates to training and development of

Why The Lahad Datu Crisis In Sabah (Malaysia) Happened Research Paper

Why The Lahad Datu Crisis In Sabah (Malaysia) Happened - Research Paper Example Sabah has been a quota of the Malaysian alliance ever since the early1960s1. However, the Sulu Sultanate, which is situated in southern Philippines, has persistently asserted its historical and exclusive privileges over the zone. Furthermore, the Philippines have nevertheless to publicly descent its assertion that Sabah is a portion of its region. The government of Malaysia had requested the armed Filipinos in Lahad Datu to admit defeat for three weeks now without a success. Unfortunately, on March 5th, the army confronted the group and terminated the livelihood. The clash and subsequent military operations reportedly resulted into the killing of more than fifty people, inclusive of eight associates of the Malaysian police. The Malaysian ministry of welfare was fast to name the armed Filipinos as bombers. The government of the Philippines, which is presently accomplishing a peace treaty with Muslim separaties in the southern portion of the nation, also condemned the livelihood. Remar kably, the prime minister of Malaysia has yet to let go the notion that Malaysian opposition politicians have collaborated with the Sulu sultan in order to undermine the nation and bring down the presiding alliance ahead of the year`s universal polls. This research aims at analyzing the reasons why Lahad Datu crisis in Sabah (Malaysia )happened.... Thus, because of such restriction, the Lahad Datu crisis in Sabah was inevitable. This is because such limitations on travel will likely cause shortages on foodstuffs for the people, which is a dangerous action for people in such area. However, it is feared that the Sabah crisis is most likely to leave problems for both Malaysia and the Philippines for the coming future. Therefore, in order to avoid such crisis from happening, it is necessary that the officials of Malaysia and the Philippines settle for the last time the issue of Sabah. From research, the Philippines preserves a central regional entitlement to eastern Sabah, initially referred to as north Bomeo, through the custom of the Sultanate of Sulu. This claim is based on the idea that the domain of the sultanate has traditionally traversed from the Sulu archipelago into portions of northern Bomeo4. Therefore, because of such claims, the embassy of Malaysia in Philippines gives out a cheque of some amount to the lawful counsel of the beneficiaries of the Sultan of Sulu in maintain the terms of an pact made in 1878. Malaysia views the amount as a yearly cession payment for the disputed nation; however, the progeny of Sultan views it as a lease imbursement. Nevertheless, Malaysia has categorically canceled any Philippine local entitlement to Sabah as it infers the 1878 pact as that of cession and that it supposes that the inhabitants of Sabah had practiced their rights to independence when they decided to join the Malaysia confederation in 1963. Thus, analytically, it is because of such issues that led to the Lahad Datu crisis in Sabah. In addition, another reason for the Lahad Datu

Research Methods Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words - 2

Research Methods - Essay Example Every organization requires resourcefulness and ingenuity as well as pragmatic decision-making for its sustenance. There is always a balance between the benefit of the business and the benefit of the people being affected by the business, directly or indirectly. Therefore, it is not possible to set up any permanent basis by which decisions can be made—they have to be made with regard to the circumstances and according to whatever has maximum significance at that point of time in the list of priorities. However, the point is to make the required compromise without violating the ethical code of conduct in business. The very existence of an ethical code of conduct in all professions implies that it is present to create a situation in which no individual has to compromise on his basic needs or functions in life. I see myself grappling very frequently with ethical issues as a part of my involvement with clients. There might often be situations in which profit for my company does not directly translate into benefits for my client. In this case, it would be necessary to consider whether as an eth ical person I would ensure that my client has reasonable knowledge of the situation. Hence, in dealing with other individuals, especially the consumer end of the business, I consider it necessary to view ethics as a major proponent in decision-making.

The role of Intelligence in the formulation of government policies Essay Example for Free

The role of Intelligence in the formulation of government policies Essay Introduction Espionage is the secret collection of information, or intelligence, that the source of such information wishes to protect from disclosure. Intelligence refers to evaluated and processed information needed to make decisions. The term can be used with reference to business, military, economic, or political decisions, but it most commonly relates to governmental foreign and defense policy. Intelligence generally has a national security connotation and therefore exists in an aura of secrecy.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Espionage, or spying, is illegal according to national laws. Spying proceeds against the attempts of counter-espionage (or counter-intelligence) agencies to protect the secrecy of the information desired.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   International espionage methods and operations have few boundaries. They have been romanticized in popular fiction and the mass media, but in reality, espionage exists in a secret world of deception, fraud, and sometimes violence. Espionage involves the recruiting of agents in foreign nations; efforts to encourage the disloyalty of those possessing significant information; and audio surveillance as well as the use of a full range of modern photographic, sensing, and detection devices and other techniques of eliciting secret information (see C. S. Trahair, Richard. Encyclopedia of Cold War Espionage, Spies and Secret Operations, 2004).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The intents of this paper are to: (1) trace how espionage started; (2) know the justification and international sanction of intelligence; (3) know the recruitment agents; (4) be aware how espionages are gathered; (5) be acquainted espionage agencies and networks; (6) be informed how espionage during the 19th century and early 20th century; (7) know the role of espionage during World War II and Modern Era; (8) realized how is espionage in politics and industry; (9) learn about the   Espionage Act of 1917; (10) know about Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) as one of the agencies of intelligence and; (11)   know about its implications of modern technology. Background How espionage started?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Intelligence was early recognized as a vital tool of statecraft—of diplomacy or war. Writing almost 2,500 years ago, the Chinese military theorist Sunzi stressed the importance of intelligence. His book The Art of War (c. 500 BC) gave detailed instructions for organizing an espionage system that would include double agents and defectors. Intelligence, however, was haphazardly organized by rulers and military chiefs until the rise of nationalism in the 18th century and the growth of standing armies and diplomacy (see T. Richelson, Jeffrey. A Century of Spies: Intelligence in the Twentieth Century. 1999). III. Discussion Justification and International Sanction of Intelligence   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In order to adopt and implement foreign policy, plan military strategy and organize armed forces, conduct diplomacy, negotiate arms control agreements, or participate in international organization activities, nations have vast information requirements. Not surprisingly, many governments maintain some kind of intelligence capability as a matter of survival in a world where dangers and uncertainties still exist. The cold war may have ended, but hostilities continue in parts of Eastern Europe, the former Soviet Union, the Middle East, and elsewhere. Indeed, the collapse of old political blocs in the late 1980s has even increased international uncertainty and consequent need for information (see Carney, Ralph M. Citizen Espionage: Studies in Trust and Betrayal. 2001).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   All nations have laws against espionage, but most sponsor spies in other lands. Because of the clandestine nature of espionage, no reliable count exists of how many intelligence officers—only a small percentage of whom are actually spies—there are in the world. A common estimate is that the United States today still employs some 200,000 intelligence personnel. The number that was generally ascribed to the Soviet intelligence establishment in the 1980s was 400,000, a figure that included border guards and internal security police (see T. Richelson, Jeffrey. A Century of Spies: Intelligence in the Twentieth Century. 1999). The recruitment agents   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Today, scores of developed nations have efficient intelligence organizations with systematic programmes for recruiting new agents. Agents come from three main sources: the university world, where students are sought and trained for intelligence careers; the armed services and police forces, where some degree of intelligence proficiency may already have been attained; and the underground world of espionage, which produces an assortment of people, including criminal informers, with relevant experience (see Bungert, Heike Et Al. Secret Intelligence in the Twentieth Century. 2003).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Those who do the actual spying, which may involve stealing information or performing disloyal acts of disclosure, are led to this work by various motivations. Greed or financial need is a leading incentive in many cases, but other motivations, such as ambition, political ideology, or nationalistic idealism, can figure importantly: Oleg Vladimirovich Penkovsky, a highly placed Soviet officer, provided valuable information to Western intelligence services in the belief that the West must be warned of danger. H. A. R. (â€Å"Kim†) Philby, the notorious English spy, worked for the Soviet Union on ideological grounds.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Some spies must be carefully recruited and enticed into cooperation; others volunteer. The latter must be handled with extreme caution, as it is common for double agents to be among the volunteers. Double agents are spies who pretend to be defecting, but in reality maintain their original loyalty. Counter-intelligence staffs are always sceptical of volunteers or defectors and restrict their use for positive espionage purposes. In some cases, the most valuable spy of all is the â€Å"agent-in-place†, the person who remains in a position of trust with access to highly secret information, but who has been recruited by a foreign intelligence service; such a spy is known as a â€Å"mole† (see Herrington, Stuart A. Traitors among Us: Inside the Spy Catchers World, 1999).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   A high-priority espionage target is the penetration of the various international terrorist organizations. If the leadership of such units can be infiltrated by spies, advance knowledge can be obtained of the location and identity of intended victims, the nature of the disguises being used by the hit team, and the secret sources of weapons. Such information could be used to foil terrorist operations. International drug trafficking, it has been asserted, can similarly be thwarted by effective espionage, but the problem is complex, and only limited success has been achieved. How espionages are gathered?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Intelligence work, including spying, proceeds in a five-step process. Initially, what the decision makers need to know is considered, and requirements are set. The second step is collecting the desired information, which requires knowing where the information is located and who can best obtain it. The information may be available in a foreign newspaper, radio broadcast, or other open source; or it may be obtained only by the most sophisticated electronic means, or by planting an agent within the decision-making system of the target area. The third step is intelligence production, in which the collected raw data are assembled, evaluated, and collated into the best possible answer to the question initially asked. The fourth step is communicating the processed information to the decision maker. To be useful, information must be presented in a timely, accurate, and understandable form. The fifth and crucial step is the use of intelligence. The decision maker may choose to ignore the information conveyed, thus possibly courting disaster; on the other hand, a judgment may be made on the basis of information that proves inaccurate (see Hulnick, Arthur S. and Valcourt, Richard R. Fixing the Spy Machine: Preparing American Intelligence for the Twenty-First Century, 1999).The point is that the decision maker must make the final crucial judgment about whether, or how, to use the information supplied. The intelligence process can fail at each or any of these five basic steps. Espionage Agencies and Networks   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The worlds intelligence, espionage, counter-intelligence, and covert action programmes may be said to follow three distinct organizational patterns: the American, the totalitarian (exemplified by the Communist regimes), and the British (parliamentary) systems. Similarities exist among them, yet distinctions are sharp.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In the United States the Central Intelligence Agency continues to sit at the corner of an elaborate complex of some dozen separate intelligence organizations. Each has a specific role and a carefully guarded area of operations. The director of central intelligence is both head of the CIA and the presidents principal intelligence adviser. In the latter job the director theoretically coordinates all the separate intelligence units, setting their requirements, budgets, and operational assignments. In reality, many of the major units in the system—such as the Defense Intelligence Agency and the huge National Security Agency/Central Security Service, both part of the Department of Defense—operate in quasi-independence. The National Security Agency, which engages in code making and code breaking, the science of cryptography, is much larger in staff size and budget than the CIA (see Marchetti, Victor and Marks, John D. The CIA and the Cult of Intelligence, 2001). The military also maintains a major tactical intelligence capability to assist field commanders in making on-the-spot decisions. Other major units in the US intelligence system include the State Departments Bureau of Intelligence and Research, the Department of the Treasury, the Federal Bureau of Investigation, and the Drug Enforcement Administration of the Department of Justice. The US model influenced the intelligence structures of those countries where the United States was dominant at the end of World War II, such as West Germany (now part of the united Federal Republic of Germany), Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In contrast to the federated American intelligence structure, the typical totalitarian setup is highly centralized. In the Soviet Union, the power of the KGB pervaded every aspect of national life. Its director was generally a powerful member of the Politburo (the governing political committee of the USSR). The KGB had two chief directorates. The most important was the First Directorate, which was responsible for foreign intelligence gathering. The Second Directorates principal responsibilities involved providing counter-espionage protection to the regime and recruiting foreign agents within the Soviet Union. Its targets included diplomats and journalists stationed in the USSR, foreign students, business people, tourists, and visiting delegations (see Macpherson, Nelson. American Intelligence in War-Time London: The Story of the Oss, 2003).Most Eastern European governments followed the KGB model in their intelligence operations. China, Cuba, and other Communist nations still do.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The third model of intelligence systems is the British, a confederation of agencies coordinated by a Cabinet subcommittee and accountable to the Cabinet and prime minister. The two principal units are the Secret Intelligence Service (often called MI6, signifying â€Å"military intelligence†) and the Security Service (popularly called MI5). These labels reflect the military origins of these services, which are now in the civilian sector. MI6 is similar to the CIA and the KGB in that it carries out espionage, counter-espionage, and covert action overseas. MI5 is charged with domestic counter-intelligence and internal security. Scotland Yard maintains a â€Å"special branch†, which operates as the overt arm of the security service; it makes arrests and offers evidence in espionage cases while MI5 agents remain in the background. A number of specialized units also operate within the British intelligence community. These include the Government Communications Centre (for code making and breaking), the Ministry of Defense intelligence sections, and various Foreign Office intelligence groups. With some national variations, the intelligence services of France, Italy, Israel, and the Commonwealth of Nations countries follow the general British pattern of organization (see Macpherson, Nelson. American Intelligence in War-Time London: The Story of the Oss, 2003). During the 19th century   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Political espionage is thought to have first been used systematically by Joseph Fouchà ©, duc dOtrante, minister of police during the French Revolution and the reign of Napoleon. Under Fouchà ©s direction, a network of police agents and professional spies uncovered conspiracies to seize power organized by the Jacobins and by Bourbon Royalist à ©migrà ©s. The Austrian statesman Prince von Metternich also established an efficient organization of political and military spies early in the 19th century. Better known than either of these organizations was the dreaded Okhrana (Department for Defence of Public Security and Order) of the Russian tsars, created in 1825 to uncover opposition to the regime.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   During the mid-19th century the secret police of Prussia was reorganized and invested with the duty of safeguarding the external as well as the internal security of the country. The Prussian espionage system played an important part in preparations to unify the German states in the German Empire. It also covered France with a network of about 30,000 agents whose work contributed to the German victory in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871. Not until the latter part of the 19th century, however, were permanent intelligence bureaux created by modern states (see T. Richelson, Jeffrey. A Century of Spies: Intelligence in the Twentieth Century. 1999). Early 20th century   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Systematic espionage aided the Japanese in defeating the Russians in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905. In preparing for World War I the Germans again flooded France with a host of agents, some of whom were disguised as trade representatives, teachers, agricultural labourers, or domestics. The most famous of these agents was Mata Hari, who posed as an Indian dancer in Paris. German agents also engaged in attempts to sabotage American national defense both before and after the US entry into World War I.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Most nations, however, entered World War I with inadequate espionage staffs, and the war was frequently fought on the basis of poor intelligence. The lessons of that war, along with rapid advances in technology, especially in communications and aviation, spurred a major growth in intelligence agencies. This was further stimulated by the advent of Fascist governments in Europe and a military dictatorship in Japan, all of which had expansionist foreign policies and the creation of counter-espionage agencies such as the Gestapo in Nazi Germany. These developments led other, democratic countries to establish counter-espionage systems as well (see Hulnick, Arthur S. and Valcourt, Richard R. Fixing the Spy Machine: Preparing American Intelligence for the Twenty-First Century. 1999). Espionage during World War II   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   World War II was the great stimulus to intelligence services worldwide. Modern military and communications technology put a premium on accurate and quick information, as well as on efforts to protect the security of sensitive information. Some of the great battles of World War II were actually intelligence and counter-intelligence battles. Only in recent years have some of the exploits, and failures, in this secret war been disclosed. Notable is Operation Double Cross, in which the British captured practically all the German spies in Great Britain during the war and turned them into double agents who sent false information back to Germany. Also, the British and their allies were able to break the German secret code, providing access to many of the enemys secret transmissions (see Sexton Jr., Donal J. Signals Intelligence in World War II: A Research Guide. 1999).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The surprise attack by Japan on the American naval base at Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, was a great intelligence success for the Japanese and an intelligence failure for the Americans. That failure stimulated the post-war growth of a massive intelligence apparatus in the United States. Before World War II the United States had virtually no intelligence system; after the war the CIA became world famous for its pervasive international surveillance, joining the MI6, the KGB, the Service de Documentation Extà ©rieure et de Contre-Espionage of France, Israels foreign intelligence agency Mossad, Chinas Social Affairs Department, and numerous other intelligence agencies in a massive network of espionage and counter-espionage efforts (see Sexton Jr., Donal J. Signals Intelligence in World War II: A Research Guide. 1999). Modern Era   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In the mid-1970s, as a result of disillusionment with the Vietnam War, the Watergate scandal, and the policies of dà ©tente, many Americans began to question the role of the CIA. Mass-media disclosures of intelligence agency abuses and failures were followed by investigations by presidential commissions and congressional committees, which resulted in new guidelines for secret operations and a new structure for executive and legislative supervision. Controversy over the CIAs role and control remains, however. One result is an ever-increasing amount of public information about intelligence services around the world (see â€Å"Espionage†. Grolier Encyclopedia of Knowledge, pp. 342-347, vol. 5). In Britain, MI5 remained unrecognized by statute until 1989, and MI6 until 1994. Espionage in Politics and Industry   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Intelligence and espionage are terms most commonly associated with national foreign policies, yet secret information is needed to make decisions in politics, commerce, and industry. Political parties have always been interested in the strategic plans of their opponents or in any information that might discredit them.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Most large corporate enterprises today have divisions for strategic planning that require intelligence reports. Competitive enterprises are undeniably interested in the plans of their competitors; despite laws against such practices, industrial espionage is difficult to detect and control and is known to be an active tool for gaining such foreknowledge. Many of the tools of government intelligence work are used, including electronic surveillance and aerial photographic reconnaissance, and attempts are even made to recruit defectors (see â€Å"Espionage†. Grolier Encyclopedia of Knowledge, pp. 342-347, vol. 5). Espionage Act of 1917   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Espionage Act of 1917 is a principal United States legislation prohibiting espionage for a foreign country and providing heavy penalties for such activity. As amended in 1940 and 1970, it is still in force.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The 1917 law provided steep fines and imprisonment for collecting and transmitting to foreign power information related to US national defense and for interfering with the recruitment or loyalty of the armed forces. Use of the US mail for material urging treason or resistance to US laws was prohibited; sabotage, especially of trading ships, was subjected to severe penalties; the movement of neutral ships in US waters was regulated (in order to stop such vessels from shipping arms or supplies to an enemy country); and the fraudulent use of passports as well as the unauthorized representation of a foreign government were prohibited. An important amendment to the law, usually called the Sedition Act, was passed in 1918 but repealed in 1921; it forbade spoken or printed attacks on the US government, Constitution, or flag (see â€Å"Intelligence†. New Standard Encyclopedia, pp. 431-437, vol. 7).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   During the outbreak of public hysteria following the US entry into World War I, the 1917 and 1918 laws permitted about 1,500 trials and prison sentences; freedom of the press was curtailed. In 1919 this led US Supreme Court justices Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr., and Louis Brandeis to state the principle, later much cited, that unpatriotic speech and publications were illegal only if they constituted a â€Å"clear and present danger† to national security.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The 1940 revision of the Espionage Act increased its penalties. The application of the law to propaganda was limited by a Supreme Court decision in 1944. During World War II about 160 people were convicted under the Espionage Act. Also under this act, the American Communists Julius Rosenberg and Ethel Rosenberg were convicted of spying and executed in 1953 (see â€Å"Intelligence†. New Standard Encyclopedia, pp. 431-437, vol. 7). Central Intelligence Agency   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), agency of the Executive Office of the President of the United States, created in 1947, together with the National Security Council. The CIA is Americas first permanent peacetime intelligence agency responsible for keeping the government informed of foreign actions affecting the nations interests. It was established by the National Security Act of 1947 and is charged with coordinating all US intelligence activities, as well as such functions and duties related to intelligence as directed by the National Security Council (see Darling, Arthur B. The Central Intelligence Agency: An Instrument of Government, to 1950. 2002). A director and deputy director of the agency are appointed by the president with the consent of the Senate (see Hulnick, Arthur S. and Valcourt, Richard R. Fixing the Spy Machine: Preparing American Intelligence for the Twenty-First Century, 1999). History   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The CIAs original mission was primarily intelligence gathering, but after Communist takeovers in Eastern Europe and mainland China, the National Security Council directed that the agency engage in political, covert psychological, paramilitary, and economic operations. United States participation in the Korean War (1950-1953) placed additional requirements on the CIA to support the combat forces.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In the period from 1953 to 1961 the CIA was at the height of its cold war activities, carrying out continuous foreign intelligence, counter-intelligence, political action, and propaganda operations. In late 1961 the CIA was reorganized to put more emphasis on science, technology, and internal management. The agency was heavily committed in the war in South East Asia. In 1963 an Office of National Intelligence Programs Evaluation was established to coordinate community activities; this was replaced in 1972 by an Intelligence Community Staff (see Lowenthal, Mark M. U.S. Intelligence: Evolution and Anatomy, 1999). Activities   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) is divided into four main directorates, or branches. The Directorate of Operations conducts covert activities around the world. The Directorate of Science and Technology interprets data gathered from electronic transmissions, spy satellites, and other sources. The Directorate of Intelligence produces analyses for policy makers by synthesizing information from the CIA and other federal agencies. The Directorate of Administration oversees the agencys finances and personnel and monitors internal security.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The activities of the CIA are many and varied. Clandestine collection of vital information that cannot be obtained by any overt means requires recruiting agents who can obtain the needed intelligence without detection. Intelligence reports from all sources are reviewed by analysts who produce studies ranging from basic surveys to estimates of future developments. Current intelligence of major importance is detailed in daily, weekly, or monthly bulletins. Periodic projections concerning key nations are presented as national intelligence estimates (see Lowenthal, Mark M. U.S. Intelligence: Evolution and Anatomy, 1999).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The CIA is also responsible for counter-espionage activities. Its mission is to prevent the placement of foreign agents in sensitive US agencies; domestically this work is coordinated with the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Covert political operations have ranged from subsidizing friendly foreign politicians, parties, or pressure groups to providing assistance in combating subversion. Paramilitary operations support certain exile forces with training and equipment; one example was the CIAs support of Cuban exiles before and during the Bay of Pigs invasion of Cuba.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Modern technology has increased the capabilities of intelligence collection. In the 1960s high-altitude aircraft introduced a new era of aerial photography; this was quickly followed by transmissions from space satellites. Similarly, underseas intelligence work was advanced by vessels capable of raising a submarine from great depths (see Lowenthal, Mark M. U.S. Intelligence: Evolution and Anatomy, 1999). Controversy and investigations   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   All clandestine activities are considered abhorrent by some people. Many, however, recognize secret intelligence collection necessary to protect national security. Generally, people support covert political activities in times of crisis.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The role of the CIA director as the principal US intelligence officer and coordinator of activities of the other agencies has often been in dispute. Over the years frequent proposals have been made to divest the head of the CIA of the coordinating role and assign that function to a member of the White House staff.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The CIA has been investigated a number of times by various task force groups, one of which in 1949 recommended major reorganization of CIA operations. Following the Bay of Pigs invasion in 1961, President John F. Kennedy appointed a group to analyze the failure.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In 1975 the CIA came under extensive Congressional and White House examination. It was found that the agency had been engaged in â€Å"unlawful† domestic spying activities and had been implicated in assassination attempts abroad. As a result of these investigations, permanent Congressional committees were established to oversee CIA operations. By 1980 these committees had exclusive jurisdiction over review of CIA activities (see Marchetti, Victor and Marks, John D. The CIA and the Cult of Intelligence, 2001).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   By 1986, however, the agency was involved in a new controversy concerning the secret sale of arms to Iran and the disbursement of monies from the sale to the rebels (known as the Contras) fighting the government of Nicaragua. The late CIA director William J. Casey, among others, was suspected of being implicated in the arms scandal. As the 1990s began, the collapse of the Soviet bloc and the dissolution of the USSR led the CIA to revise its mission and organization to meet changing world conditions.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The United States government released the first of three batches of classified documents expected to shed light on relations between Chile and the United States during the 1970s in June 1999. These documents included reports by the Central Intelligence Agency referring to covert operations intended to promote a military coup and overturn the government of President Allende.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   There was further criticism for the CIA after the terrorist attacks on the United States of September 11, 2001, when it was accused of not having done enough to warn of, and possibly prevent, the impending disaster. Over the following months the organization was subsequently given extra powers and resources to conduct increased covert operations as part of the war on terrorism; it also began to develop closer ties with the FBI (see T. Richelson, Jeffrey. A Century of Spies: Intelligence in the Twentieth Century. 1999). Conclusion Implications of Modern Technology   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   All forms and techniques of intelligence are now aided by an accelerating technology of communications and a variety of computing and measuring devices. Miniaturized cameras and microfilm have made it easier for people engaged in all forms of espionage to photograph secret documents and conceal the films. Artificial satellites also have an espionage function—that of aerial photography for such purposes as detecting secret military installations. Information held or programmes running on computers are vulnerable to penetration by hackers, whether acting independently or for other bodies. The vanguard of these developments is highly secret, but it is known that telephones can be tapped without wires, rooms can be bugged (planted with electronic listening and recording devices) without entry, and photographs can be made in the dark. Of course this same technology is used in countermeasures, and the competition escalates between those seeking secret information and those trying to protect it.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In foreign embassies in sensitive areas, confidential discussions routinely take place in plastic bubbles encasing secure rooms, to protect the confidentiality of information. Intelligence agencies have long been known to be staffed with expert lip readers. Privacy of communications remains under constant assault by technological developments that offer threats to, but perhaps also promises for, human progress. References C. S. Trahair, Richard. Encyclopedia of Cold War Espionage, Spies and Secret Operations, 2004. Greenwood Press, Westport, CT. T. Richelson, Jeffrey. A Century of Spies: Intelligence in the Twentieth Century. 1999. Oxford University Press, New York. Carney, Ralph M. Citizen Espionage: Studies in Trust and Betrayal. 2001. Praeger Publishers, Westport, CT. Bungert, Heike Et Al. Secret Intelligence in the Twentieth Century. 2003. Frank Cass. London. Herrington, Stuart A. Traitors among Us: Inside the Spy Catchers World, 1999. Presidio Press, Novato, CA. Marchetti, Victor and Marks, John D. The CIA and the Cult of Intelligence, 2001. Dell, New York. Hulnick, Arthur S. and Valcourt, Richard R. Fixing the Spy Machine: Preparing American Intelligence for the Twenty-First Century, 1999. Praeger, Westport, CT. Sexton Jr., Donal J. Signals Intelligence in World War II: A Research Guide. 1999. Greenwood Press, Westport, CT. Darling, Arthur B. The Central Intelligence Agency: An Instrument of Government, to 1950. 2002. Pennsylvania State University Press, University Park, PA. Macpherson, Nelson. American Intelligence in War-Time London: The Story of the Oss, 2003. Frank Cass, London. Hulnick, Arthur S. and Valcourt, Richard R. Fixing the Spy Machine: Preparing American Intelligence for the Twenty-First Century, 1999. Praeger, Westport, CT. â€Å"Espionage†. Grolier Encyclopedia of Knowledge, pp. 342-347, vol. 5. â€Å"Intelligence†. New Standard Encyclopedia, pp. 431-437, vol. 7. Lowenthal, Mark M. U.S. Intelligence: Evolution and Anatomy, 1999. Praeger, Westport, CT.